What Can Indivuduals Do to Help Protect Environment and Why?

Environment Tables of Contents: Introduction: The environment is defined as all the elements (biotic or abiotic) that surround an individual or species, some of which directly contribute to support herself one, or as all natural conditions (physical, chemical, biological) and cultural (sociological) can act on living organisms and human activities.The twenty-first century, environmental protection has become a major issue, along with the idea of necessary degradation of both global and local, because of human pollution. The preservation of the environment is one of the three pillars of sustainable development. It is also the seventh of the eight Millennium Development, considered by the UN as â€Å"crucial to the success of the other objectives outlined in the Declaration of the Millennium Summit†. Protecting the environment is preserved and the future survival of humanity.Indeed, the environment is our source of food and drinking water. Air is our source of oxygen. The climate allows our survival. And biodi versity is a potential reservoir of drug. Preserving the environment is a matter of survival. In fact in this report we will talk about why protect the environment is important and secondly we will see how we can help to protect the environment. Protect the environment, why is it important? Protecting the environment is important for our lives, for a healthy lifestyle but also to the development of the species because there is still much to discover.That is why the protection of the environment is important, now, we will see now through food, air climate and other points of how the protect the environment is essential. * Everything we eat and drink comes from nature. Or any pollution ends up one day in our food: in the water we drink or what we eat. And these pollutants can cause us to develop diseases or malformations. Protect our food source is to preserve the survival and therefore the future of humanity. * The air is absolutely essential to our survival. We cannot survive more t han a few minutes without breathing.The air brings oxygen fuel cells. But breathing, we do not inhale that of oxygen. We absorb a lot of other things. With each breath, we inhale gases and particles that are in the atmosphere. Some of these gases and particles are harmful to our bodies. With each inspiration, we take a bit of poison. Breathing then puts our health at risk and makes us sick. While breathing should only be keep us alive. Protecting air quality is the health and therefore the future of humanity. * Our societies have ways of life adapted to current climate.If the climate changes, our societies will not fit there. Some regions will suffer serious disorders. According to the parts of the world, there will be a rise in the water, droughts, and floods repeated, severe storms†¦ These disasters will flee or decimate populations. People will have to move or change their lifestyle. Conflicts break out to live in areas spared. Flora and fauna will evolve with the changing c limate. Some plants will no longer be appropriate. Local agriculture will be affected. Parasites will spread to new areas, spreading disease to humans, plants and animals.We are already beginning to see that the overall temperature of the Earth increases. And this change is extremely fast. Nature will not have time to adapt. The current balance is upset. Careful not to damage the environment is to preserve the delicate balance of the Earth and therefore the future of humanity. * Biodiversity is the variety of plant and animal species in nature. All these species must be respected and preserved. But all these species are also necessary for the survival and future of man. Plants and animals can contribute to our health.For it is among the wildlife, sometimes unknown, that man has yet discovered or discovers drugs. These are also the wildlife that can help our agriculture. They can help improve performance and disease resistance of our plantations or our farms. Nature is a source of fu ture discoveries and solutions to our problems. It would be suicidal to destroy all that before they could benefit. Preserving biodiversity is to save a tank of future solutions to our problems. That safeguards the future of humanity. What can individuals do to help protect environment?Become more environmentally friendly is not as difficult as we might think. There are small things we can do every day to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and our negative impact on the environment. Every action and every thought, action is environmentally friendly. Caring for the Earth is a responsibility, a privilege or a treat of citizens! Elements to return to the Developer in the previous section, we will see how man can help the environment. * For the food: we must therefore ensure that nature produces a water and healthy food in sufficient quantity.For this, we must avoid polluting the soil and seas. * For the air: we should not carelessly dismiss or distribution of chemicals in excess. We must be careful not to pollute our atmosphere. * For the climate: we must not reject it harmful gases or particles dangerous to life. We have to limit our impact on climate by reducing our emissions of greenhouse gas emissions. For our air emissions accentuate the natural greenhouse effect that contributes to heat our planet. For this, we must ensure in particular to limit our energy consumption. For the biodiversity: we must prevent the destruction of natural areas. We need to protect endangered species. There are also others simples way to preserve our environment. We can help reduce pollution just by putting our plastic bottles in a different tray. If we hesitate about the choice between two products, it is preferable to one with less packaging. Considering a building with 7000 employees that recycle all their waste paper for a year, this represents the equivalent of 400 cars off the roads. A simple motto: â€Å"The best waste is that it did not produce†¦ Turn off the light s behind us, turn off the computer (and monitor) when we do not have the utility, TV also, use compact fluorescent bulbs or LED the best rather than traditional bulbs. The standby power consumption (stand-by) devices using a current transformer (television, computer, halogen lamps) are not negligible and a power strip with switch can completely disconnect the devices when they are not used. Simple gestures, but very effective on our power consumption. The dryer (dryer) is not always essential.Enjoy the summer heat and high winds of autumn to dry our clothes (the sun is also the best stain remover and bleach for clothes! ). It is good not to let the water run all the time while we brush our teeth. If we have a toilet that continuously allowed flowing a little water, it may be several tens of litters of water per day. The use of modern toilets (or toilet bio litter) provides, without odor, water savings even greater and provides rewarding compost our waste. Conclusion: In fact, to lea ve for our children tomorrow, a world livable, breathable and clean, we must start early with them to make them understand.Do not throw paper wanders by, turning off lights, do not waste water. All this in 3 / 4 years children understand! And then, ourselves, have more responsible attitudes and do not always rely on others to make savings (gas and transportation, sorting, paper everywhere. Every detail is important, and drop-by-drop, we come to a Wed. References: (Reynaud, 2011), Sustainable development in the heart of the company (Managment, 2011), Management, Environmental (Milton, 2011), The environment site (Smouts, 2011), Sustainable Development (Baddache, 2011), Sustainable development on a daily basis

Proper Procedures for Production Schedules and Risk Management Essay

In the United States Army Food Program there are specific ways to fill out and prepare documents according to AR 30-22, The Army Food Program. These procedures are outlined in the Department of the Army Pamphlet (DA PAM) 30-22, Operating Procedures for the Army Food Program. This paper will advise the proper way to document the required items on a Production Schedule as well as completing a Risk Management Data Log – Cooking and Serving as summarized from DA PAM 30-22. DA Form 3034, Production Schedule is a document used to outline the specific products to prepare for a meal. Each meal for the day will have a separate completed Production schedule and set of Risk Data Management Logs. A Production Schedule will be prepared despite the size, or environment, weather that be in garrison or in a field environment. When filling out a DA 3034, it should be clearly understood by any cook personnel. Within the DA Form 3034, Production Schedule are 16 data categories or columns. Columns 1 through 6 pertain to the location and meal, the columns include the date and hours of the meal as well as the unit and projected headcount for that meal. Columns 7 through 14 informs the reader of the product including the person assigned to that product and when he or she should start, how many portion to prepare, and the recipe number in witch to follow when preparing that product. After the meal the shift leader would then fill in columns 12 and 13 regarding how many portions were actually prepared during the meal and how many portion discarded or leftover for a following meal. There is also a column to specify all if any special instructions, for example any added ingredients or specific details on how the manager wants that product to be prepared. Leftovers or discards should be entered immediately after the meal is completed. These items should be filled out in pen weather blue or black and highlighted with a read through fluorescent marker. These items should also reflect on the subsequent menu. Any menu changes including but not limited to; portion size, ingredients used, or serving instructions will be annotated. On the AFMIS generated Production Schedule it also list the products that have Critical Control Points or CCP’s. These points represent the potential for bacterial growth if the product reaches above or below a specified temperature. Reference TB MED 530 for more information regarding those temperatures. For products noted with a CCP you must check the product throughout the meal to make sure that foods stay at the right temperature. IE: Hot foods need to stay at or above 140 degrees for 15 seconds or longer. Cold foods need to stay at or below 40 degrees for 15 seconds or longer. On the production schedule you should annotate the readings as the temperature/15 seconds followed by your initials. For example 145/15 sec. JS. Annotating CCP’s on a DA 3034 Production Schedule along with completing a DA Form 7458 Risk Management Data Log Cooking and DA Form 7459 Risk Management Data Log Serving is required to maintain food safety and health measures. Risk Management Data Logs are used to document appropriate safety monitoring measures of the cooking and serving process according to TB MED 530. The shift leader will fill out the DA Form 7458 with the appropriate date and meal as well as who is monitoring the products to be checked. On the Cooking Data Log the products to check for breakfast should include 2 meat items and 2 other hot items. For lunch and dinner, 3 entree items should be checked as well as any leftovers intended to be used for that meal. You should monitor the internal temperature for the specified product throughout the cooking process until the internal cooking temperature is reached (specified in TB MED 530). On the DA Form 7459 Risk Management Data Log Serving you should check three menu items that are cold served focusing on items like pasta, diced meats, fruit and vegetable cut ups, and creams found most commonly in desserts. For hot serving during breakfast check 2 meats to make sure they are holding an internal temperature of 140 degrees or higher for at least 15 seconds or longer. Be sure to include one self-service item as well. It is required that you check the same items 2 to 3 times during the serving period. For the lunch and dinner periods check at least one meat and 3 other hot menu items. When filling out the information onto the 7458 and 7459 Data Logs you have different CAT’s or categories. On the 7458 you have CAT’s 1, 2, and, 3 respectively they correspond with the cooking temperature required 1, >145 2, >155 3, >165 these temperatures are concurrent with the internal temperatures needed for the different meats used in the products (reference TB MED 530 for the different meat internal temperatures). For each product enter the CAT and the piece of equipment you used to cook or heat the product. Then annotate the times and temperature each time you checked the product throughout the process. If the required temperature is not reached when you check the product continue cooking and mark the corrective action. On a 7459 Serving Data Log annotate each products CAT and location of the product and the times and temperature of the product when you check it as well as any corrective action for products in non-compliance. For each day and meal period a separate 7458 and 7459 Risk Management Data Log must be completed. By following these simple steps when filling out a DA Form 3034 and DA Forms 7458 and 7459 you are ensuring that the proper procedures are maintained in the Army Food Program.

An Examination Of The Indian Natural Resources Environmental Sciences Essay

IntroductionConsequently, the First Five Year Plan presented an history of the land, H2O, mineral and energy resources of the state on the footing of information so available. It drew attending to the chief jobs in each field and put out programmes for farther studies and probes. It besides offered suggestions for beef uping the administrations responsible for these studies, supplying them with forces and equipment. and spread outing programmes of preparation. Over the past few old ages administrations covering with the study and use of natural resources, such as the Indian Council of Agri- cultural Research, the Central Water and Power Commission, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Geological Survey of India, Oil and Natural Gas Commission, Indian Bureau of Mines, Survey of India, Forest Research Institute Atomic Energy Commission, and the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and its National Laboratories have been greatly expanded and have undertaken a series of new studies and probes. These studies have resulted in a fuller appraisal of the state ‘s natural resources conveying to illume the spreads in informa- tion associating to these resources as besides their lacks in rela- tion to the state ‘s hereafter demands, 2. The aim of planning is to raise the criterion of life of the people as a whole. The attainment of this nonsubjective involves the development on scientific lines of the state ‘s natural and human resources. Expanded demand for natural resources and stuffs has led to technological developments which have in portion overcome limita- tions and therefore increased the supply of resources. The dynamic forces at work in making displacements in the demand for and supply or natural resources necessitate their uninterrupted survey every bit good as reformulation of policies associating to them. Natural resources must be looked at in a co-ordinated mode and their probe and use planned for long-run demands. The extent to which resources have been studied and possibilities established in front of demands is an of import factor finding the rate at which the economic system can turn. 3. With the preparation of the Third Five Year Plan, the phase has reached when, as a necessary status of well-conceived long-run programs, a comprehensive position demands to be taken of the extent and quali- ty of the information available in regard of the state ‘s chief natural resources. The principal spreads which exist, the studies required in this connexion, and the farther stairss needed in relation to specific long scope aims, such as irrigation, power, steel, coal, oil and minerals, land usage and forest resources have to be iden- tified. As stated earlier, over the following 15 old ages, population may increase by about 187 million. Increase in labour force is reckoned at approximately 70 million, of whom some two-thirds must be absorbed outside agribusiness. It becomes, hence, a affair of the greatest impor- tance that a high rate of economic ‘growth is achieved and sustained during this period. Her natural resources give India a big poten- tial for agricultur al and industrial production, and their rapid development is an indispensable status for the accomplishment over the following two or three Plan periods, of a autonomous and self-sustained economic system which can supply to the mass of the people continually lifting life criterions and chances for paid employment. The long- term ends in national and per capita incomes and the development of agribusiness, irrigation and power, and the probationary marks sug- gested earlier for industries like steel, aluminum, coat, oil refin- ing, fertilizers, cement and others can merely be achieved in clip if the nature and extent of the natural resources of the state and the indispensable demands refering their development are assessed and the necessary stairss taken good in progress. For balanced development, it is every bit necessary to measure handinesss, demands and possibilities in relation to each of the chief parts within the state. 4. In the Chapters on irrigation and power, woods, indus- attempts, minerals and others, an effort has been made to bespeak the chief waies in which farther attempts are needed to determine more to the full the resources of the state and the steps required for their more rapid development. The object of the present Chapter is to put the job of measuring and developing 96 THIRD FIVE Year Plan natural resources in the context of the Third and subsequent Plans and to explicate briefly some of the deductions in this regard of the growing of population and of intensive and largescale industialisation. A unit for Natural Resources has been late set up in the Planning Commission for analyzing jobs associating to the appraisal and development of natural resources and helping the assorted agen- cies engaged in the study and probe of these resources in associating up their work closely with the demands of the quickly turning economic system, and by and large, assisting in procuring a common attack in assorted related Fieldss. This unit will be strengthened as its work develops. In coaction with other administrations, it is hoped to set up for co-ordinated surveies of natural resources on a go oning footing, to stipulate spreads in the bing information, peculiarly from the facet of long-run development, and to propose suited policies and steps for giving consequence to them. Against this background, it is proposed briefly to reexamine recent developments and to bespeak the jobs that lie in front in relation to the development of the land, H2O, mineral, energy and other resources of the state. TwoLAND RESOURCES5. The most of import natural resource of the state is land, which is the base for agricultural production. While population grows, the land surface is fixed, and of this lone a certain propor- tion is available for cultivation. Several facets of the job demand to be studied. Through irrigation and other steps of agricul- tural development, the productiveness of land can be well in- creased. It is necessary to determine the extent to which land now lying waste can go available for cultivation. Increasing popula- tion besides means backdown of countries now under farms for edifice houses. Development of communications such as roads, railroads, and air passages may take up fertile land. Owing to rapid urbanization and growing of big metropoliss land is needed for Parkss and unfastened infinites. Irrigation dike may submerse fertile countries. Industrial workss and other constitutions besides require significant countries. In all these developments wherever fertile land can be saved attempts should be made to make so. This indicates the demand for a comprehensive stock list of land and for greater polish in land categorization and uninterrupted attending to land usage. 6. Land utilisation.-The entire geographical country of India is about 806 million estates, of which describing country is about 721 million estates and net country sown is about 318 million estates. The wide fea- tures of the present form of land use and that anticipated by the terminal of the Third Plan are set out in the Table below: Table 1: Land use in 1965-66 ( country in million estates ) 1955-56 1960-61 1965-66 entire describing country 720.0 721.0 721.0 woods 125.6 131.0 132.0 land under assorted tree harvests and groves 13.9 14.0 15.0 lasting grazing lands and other croping lands 28.4 32.0 32.0 culturable waste 54.8 47.0 40.0 wastes and uncultivated land and land put to non-agricultural usage 118.7 114.0 114.0 fallow lands other than current fallows 30.9 28.0 26.0 current fallows 29.5 28.0 25.5 non country shown 318.2 327.0 335.0 country sown more than one time 44.4 51.5 67.0 gross country sown 362.6 378.5 402.0 Availability per caput of arable land in India is about 0.82 estates as against 0.42 in U.K. , 0.48 in Germany, 0.17 in Japan, 0.50 in China, 2.68 in U.S.A. and 2.59 in U.S.S.R. 7. Soil surveys.-Until late cognition of dirts in different parts of the state was unequal and the necessary Administration for dirt studies had non been established. Appraisal of dirt resources, affecting study and categorization of dirts provides the footing for measuring their potencies every bit good as their restrictions for effec- tive development and rational land use.The chief object of dirt studies is to sort and adult male out of assorted types of dirts, to cognize dirt differences, and to organize cognition of dirts with a position to puting down criterions of terminology, etc. With the assistance of these studies it becomes possible to fix strategies for the better usage of land and to be after, for dirt preservation and irrigation and drainage plants. In 1955 an all-India dirt study strategy was initiated at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute with a position to transporting out reconnaissance dirt studies taking to correlativity of dirts of different parts. Soil correlativity work involves categorization and puting down of terminology of dirts on a unvarying footing and besides the readying of dirt study studies and dirt maps. In the field of dirt studies, State Governments are specially concerned with facets associating to agriculture, forestry, irrigation, drainage, dirt conser- vation, etc. Since there are common dirt jobs covering more than one State and all States do non hold their ain dirt study organisa- tions, with a position to organizing work on dirts, it was felt that the best class would be to put up research labs on a regional footing for the four major dirt groups happening in India, viz. , ( 1 ) at Delhi, for the Alluvial Soil Region, ( 2 ) at Poona ( now at Nagpur ) for the Black Soil Region, ( 3 ) at Kharagpur ( now at Calcutta ) for the Red and Laterite Soil Region I, and ( 4 ) at Bangalore NATURAL RESOURCES 97 for the Red and Laterite Soil Region II. Three old ages after its origin, the strategy was integrated with the strategy for dirt and land usage planning drawn up by the Central Soil Conservation Board for the intent of dirt and land usage study in the catchment countries of six major river vale undertakings, viz. , Machkund, Hirakud, Chambal, Bhakra Nangal, Kosi and Damodar, numbering about 78,000 square stat mis. Surveies in the catchment countries aim at sorting lands into capableness categories basically from the point of position of following dirt preservation steps with a position to understating dirt eroding, preserv- ing the top dirt for cultivation and forestalling sediment fluxing into storage reservoirs, and therefore increasing their life. Soil preservation work in the catchment countries involves elaborate studies in agricultural lands and reconnaissance studies in other countries. The entire country to be surveyed is about 500,000 square stat mis. By the beginning of 196 1, an country of about 18,000 square stat mis had been covered by both elaborate ‘and reconnaissance studies undertaken through the all-India strategy. Of this country, about 3000 square stat mis fall within the catchment countries of the river vale undertakings. Soil study administrations in the States have surveyed about 50,000 square stat mis. Under the all-India programme, about 23,000 square stat mis are to be surveyed during the Third Plan. 18. Survey of wastelands.-Agricultural production can be stepped up through extension of country under cultivation by cultivating waste lands, dual cropping of individual harvest countries, and other steps of intensifiers farming. There is considerable range for widening the gross country sown by dual cropping. It is anticipated that the country sown more than one time might increase from about 52 million estates in 1960-61 to about 67 million estates by 1965-66. Harmonizing to the avail- able land use statistics the country under culturable waste in 1955-56 amounted to about 55 million estates. In June 1959, the Govern- ment of India constituted a Committee to do a study of land classi- fied as â€Å" other uncultivated land excepting fallow lands † and â€Å" fallow lands other than current fallows † and to turn up countries where big blocks of land are available for renewal and relocation. The Committee has completed its study of seven States. In these, the country o f barren available for cultivation in blocks of 250 acre or more is reckoned at about a million estates. The Committee ‘s findings sing the present statistics of barrens are of considerable importance. On the whole the bing informations are non sufficiently dependable, and lands classified as culturable waste at the clip of colony frequently continue to be shown as such in the gross records long after they have come under cultivation. In the position of the Committee, the mere aggregation of statistics under the caput ‘cultura- ble waste ‘ can function small intent and elaborate information should be available about the types of barrens in each State, the ownership of such lands, their handiness in ample blocks and the cost of renewal steps. The Committee has, hence, recommended that rapid reconnaissance studies should be conducted for roll uping such information. 9. To sum up, there are big spreads in the information at present available sing land resources. To procure speedy consequences it is necessary that land studies utilizing photogrammetric techniques ( aerial exposure ) should be undertaken, and informations on and utilize, land betterment, renewal of water-logged, saline and alkalic lands and productiveness should be collected in a systematic mode with a position to pulling up farther programs. ThreeFOREST Resource10. Out of the entire geographical country of 1.26 million square stat mis, about 274,000 square stat mis or about 21.8 per cent of the country consists of woods. Due to fluctuations in climatic conditions and differences in height a big assortment of natural flora runing from temperature to tropical is found in the woods of India. For- Eastern Times may be classified as follows: Table 2: Categorization of woods per centum temperate woods cone-bearing 3 broadleaf 4 tropical woods deciduous 80 evergreen 12 others 1 11. The productiveness of India ‘s woods can be greatly in- creased. Forests are among the few renewable resources in nature which, if decently managed, could travel on giving at unrelieved rate and for an indefinite period. There is deficit of lumber and fire- wood, of natural stuffs for drugs, paper and mush and of fresh fish for cowss. 12. Wood and other wood merchandises are basic natural stuffs indispensable for ‘industrial development. In the past no proper apprais- Al of local forest resources was made and merchandises such as paper or mush, plyboard, tannic acid, etc. , were freely imported. With a position to developing such industries in the state, an assessment of the posi- tion of such natural stuffs is a affair of importance. The ingestion of industrial wood in India is every bit low as 0.6 cft. per capita per twelvemonth as against 16.0 cft. in France and 13.4 cft. in Japan. India ‘s present demands of industrial wood sum to 4.5 million dozenss and are estimated to be more than 9 million dozenss in 1975. As respects firewood resources, in the ordinary class, a demand of 100 million dozenss is anticipated by 1975. 13. It is indispensable that a sustained addition in production should be secured from twelvemonth to twelvemonth through injtensive development strategies, including choice of high output countries, seting of quick- turning species, debut of improved logging 98 THIRD FIVE Year Plan and treating techniques, development of communications and more by and large, the linking of wood development with specific strategies of industrial development to be undertaken over the following few old ages. While the demands and supplies of industrial wood are still more or less balanced, it is considered that over the following 10 or 15 old ages unless particular stairss are taken, acute deficits might be experienced. This calls for steps for the intensification of production, devel- opment of hill woods, improved use of low class lumbers, economic system in fuel wood ingestion and systematic studies of forest re- beginnings in relation to specific industries. It is besides necessary to set about a study of forest lands, bespeaking countries which are severely eroded, those tantrum for natural regeneration and those where seting should be undertaken. In some countries, specially in Central and South India, there are natural woods with trees which ‘have merely fuel value. T hese countries can be covered with valuable deep-rooted woods. There is need excessively for obtaining informations sing forest resources in unaccessible countries. FourWATER RESOURCES14. Water resources may be divided loosely into surface H2O and belowground H2O. Their development has to be viewed in relation to the demand to increase the productiveness of land through irrigation, inundation control, drainage and other agencies and besides to domestic. and industrial demands. 15. Surface water.- The one-year rainfall over the full state represents something more than 3000 million acre-feet of H2O. Of this sum, about 1000 million acre-feet are lost instantly due to vaporization and approximately 650 million acre-feet seep into the dirt, go forthing 1350 million acre-feet to flux into the river systems. The full surface flow can non be utilized because topography, flow char- acteristics, clime and dirt conditions impose bounds on serviceability. It has been estimated that merely 450 million acre-feet can be harnessed for intents of irrigation. Advancement in existent use is as follows: Table 3: Surface H2O use for irrigation million every bit Percent as per centum acre-feet of useable of entire flow flow upto 1951 76 17 6 upto 1960-61 120 27 9 upto 1965-66 ( anticipated ) 160 36 12 16. Belowground H2O. : Of the 650 million acre-feet of H2O that seep down yearly into the dirt, about 350 million, acre-feet get absorbed in the top beds thereby lending to dirty wet which is indispensable for the growing of flora. The staying 300 million acre-feet percolate down into porous strata and stand for the one-year enrichment of belowground H2O. The entire storage resistance at any peculiar clip may be several times this sum, but it can be assessed merely if a country-wide probe is undertaken. The existent use of belowground H2O at nowadays is less than 20 per cent of the one-year enrichment. Over the past eight old ages, through a series of ground-water geographic expedition undertakings, attempts have been made to set up countries favorable to the sinking of tube-wells. For the 3rd Plan, a undertaking including 500 explorative drillings has been accepted. With a position to easing the work of geographic expedition and cut downing the demand for large-scale boring, it is b esides proposed to transport out geo- physical probes. In peninsular India such probes would rapidly de ermine the deepness of the bed stone and are likely to give first indicants of ground-water handiness. A study pro- gm is besides in manus in Andhra Pradesh for placing countries of belowground H2O where filter points for extraction of H2O can be successfully drilled. 17. Utilisation.-The major usage of H2O is for irrigation and hydropower coevals, but H2O is besides used for public H2O supply, industrial and pilotage intents. Water supply for irrigation can be obtained both from surface and belowground resources. 18. The Central Water and Power Commission initiated in 1954 a survey of different basins in the state for measuring the ultimate potency of major and average irrigation undertakings. For intents of this survey the state was divided into five chief zones covering groups of river basins, and for each river basin the topography, rainfall, strength of cultivation, possible storage sites, irrigable countries, reservoir capacity and other relevant factors were examined. Surveies in regard of four zones are about complete, while the fifth has still to be taken up. A preliminary appraisal places the irriga- tion potency of major and average undertakings at 100 million estates ( gross ) distributed as follows: Table 4: Irrigation potency of major and average undertakings: irrigation possible ( million estates ) zone 1: West-flowing rivers ( covering river basins in Kerala, Mysore and Maha- rashtra State and the basins of Tapti- Narmada & A ; others ) 10 zone 2: East-flowing rivers ( covering the basins of Tambraparani, Vaigai, Cauveri Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Pennar and others ) 33 zone 3: Indus basin 13 zone 4: Ganga basin ( covering, Chambal, Jamuna, Ramganga, Tons, Gomti, Sone, Ganga and its feeders ) 41 zone 5: Brahmaputra basin 3 entire 100Policy PRIORITIES3.1 The macroeconomic considerations discussed in measuring the likely growing waies are a portion of the overall development scheme that needs to be addressed in the Ninth Plan. This chapter discusses some of the other issues which are of economy-wide significance. The more elaborate sectoral policy issues are taken up in the following chapter. 3.2 At macro level the planning theoretical account in the Planning Commission is used to apportion resources among economic sectors. The inexplicit logic of allotment in the theoretical account is the demand for consistence in the reciprocally back uping function of these economic sectors to do executable a mark rate of growing and demand form. However, the allotment of resources to the societal. sectors like wellness, instruction, public assistance, lower limit demands and poorness relief, etc. is done chiefly on the footing of the perceptual experiences of the policy shapers and contrivers as to the demand in these sectors within the overall restraints of available resources. 3.3 There is no standard set of standards for make up one's minding allotment of financess to programmes, strategies and undertakings within a sector. The strategies which take the form of a Undertaking in energy, conveyance, irrigation and communicating, etc. have to go through the minimal criterions of fiscal and/or economic rates of return. However, there are no ways of doing a pick from amongst a big figure of undertakings or strategies which would go through the same criterion. Programs and strategies which are non conformable to such cost-benefit analysis do non hold to go through through even this type of examination. Therefore it is necessary to germinate certain guidelines for the choice of programmes, strategies or undertakings from among the many which are possible at a given clip. The undermentioned trials are proposed: I ) Then schemes which are of larger benefit to the hapless as compared to the remainder of the population should hold a precedence. two ) The strategies which benefit the adult females, kids and the weaker subdivisions of the society more than the population as a whole should hold a precedence. three ) The strategies which are of larger benefit to the backward part should hold a precedence. four ) Schemes which are non-displacing, authorising and labor-intensive should hold precedence. V ) The strategies which give long term sustainable benefit should hold a precedence over strategy which 33 give a small higher benefit but merely of a transitional nature. six ) The strategies which help the creative activity of productive assets ( personal assets or economy-wide assets ) should hold a precedence over those which merely help to raise the current degree of income or good being. seven ) Service-oriented strategies ( except those in the class of basic minimal services ) , which require high degree of subsidization, should hold low precedence and attempt should be made to promote commercial operation of such services. eight ) Schemes which require creative activity of enabling environment by manner of systemic reforms, alterations in legislative model, institutional development, .promotion of participatory attacks and selfgovernance should hold a high precedence. 3.4 Population stabilization is an indispensable requirement for sustainability of development procedure. The National Family Planning Programme was launched in 1952 with the aim of â€Å" cut downing birth rate to the extent necessary to brace the population at a degree consistent with demand of national economic system † . The technological progresss and improved quality and coverage of wellness attention resulted in a rapid autumn of mortality rate from 27 in 1951 to 9.8 in 1991. In contrast, the decrease in birth rate has been less steep worsening from 40 in 1951 to 29.5 in 1991. As a consequence them one-year exponential population growing has been over 2 % in the last three decennaries. During the Eighth Plan period the autumn in birth rate has been steeper than that in the decease rate ; accordingly one-year growing rate is around 1.9 % during 1991-95. The rate of diminution in population growing is likely to be accelerated during the Ninth Plan period. 3.5 Though the diminution in birth and decease rates have occurred in all provinces, the rate of diminution was slower in some provinces like U.P. and Bihar ; even within the same province there are significant differences between territories. The Family Welfare Programme, hence needs to be reoriented to take or understate the inter- and intra-State differences with accent on improved entree and quality of generative and child wellness services through PHC based decentralized country specific microplanning without resort to specific centrally fixed marks. 3.6 It is imperative that equal data-base is available at PHC degree on annual footing, both for the demand 34 appraisal as besides to supply an independent mechanism for impact appraisal and midcourse rectification. This can be achieved merely through complete enrollment of all births and deceases. For this, it is necessary to beef up the Civil enrollment system through engagement of ICDS workers, Panchayati Raj establishments, every bit good as wellness forces. 3.7 Simultaneously, the Ninth Plan will establish an intensive thrust to advance wellness instruction so that India builds a sound foundation for a successful preventative and promotive national wellness paradigm. Basic rules of hygiene, sanitation, nutrition, and bar of unwellness and disease will be promoted through non merely the educational establishments and the grownup instruction programme but besides through the ICDS programme, through guidance offered by the wellness workers at all degrees, and the mass media. 3.8 The 2nd of import component of sustainability pertains to the protection of the environment and saving of the natural resource base of the state. Quickly turning population, urbanization, altering agricultural, industrial and H2O resource direction, increasing usage of pesticides and fossil fuels have all resulted in perceptible impairment in the quality and sustainability of the environment. It needs to be realised that environment protection does non merely affect a bar of pollution and of natural resource debasement, but has to be integrated with the over-all development Procedure and the wellbeing of people. This attack has been articulated in the Agenda 21 of United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. The stairss outlined in this papers demand to be adopted and integrated with the development scheme. A synergism between wellness, environment and development is recognised. 3.9 Regeneration of the forest screen is an of import constituent of environmental sustainability. This non merely requires attending to the saving of bing woods, Particularly in the delicate eco- parts of the Himalayas and the Ghats among others, but besides a greater attempt to make forest screen in a wide-spread mode. It is proposed that every territory in the state should reserve at least 2 per cent of its available country as wood. 3.10 One of the chief jobs in taking a rational determination on natural resource usage is the deficiency of an appropriate information system and a methodological analysis for natural resource accounting. As a consequence, the depletion of the national plus base is merely non taken into history while measuring alternate schemes. The Ninth Plan will put great emphasis on germinating such natural resource accounting 35 methodological analysiss so that determinations can be taken on the footing of the full cost to the Nation. 3.11. The most of import methodological analysis for forestalling undue depletion of natural resources is by guaranting their efficient usage at all degrees. This has two of import dimensions. First, exhaustible or vulnerable natural resource should be priced suitably in order to forestall over-exploitation. In ‘India, since a big proportion of natural resources are subjected to administered monetary values, there has been a inclination to under-price resources rather significantly. This attack needs to be changed desperately. Second, engineerings which conserve the usage of natural resources need to be developed and promoted smartly. 3.12 Food and nutrition security every bit good as poorness relief are unalienable constituents of sustainable development. In position of the fact that the net seeded country is likely to worsen in the hereafter in order to continue the ecological balance, accent will hold to be placed on increasing the productiveness of land usage. There is hence need to heighten the flow of resources to agriculture from both public and private beginnings and to smartly advance the execution of land reforms so that the productiveness of land usage is enhanced. In add-on, stairss will necessitate to be taken towards more efficient usage of dirt and H2O resources. A start has been made in this procedure by promoting a diversified growing of agribusiness by agroclimatic parts. This would hold to be carried frontward smartly. New enterprises will necessitate to be developed for intercession on the footing of agro-economic classification. In the thin agricultural season, upto 100 yearss of assured emplo yment will be provided under the Employment Assurance Scheme, which is being universalised. 3.13 In order to beef up the technological capablenesss of the Indian industries, both for run intoing the national demands and for supplying planetary fight, a figure of new enterprises have been launched. A Technology Development Board has been established in 1996 with a authorization to ease development of new engineerings and assimilation and version of imported engineerings by supplying catalytic support to industries and R & A ; D establishments to work in partnership. Matching grants to R & A ; D establishments demoing commercial net incomes through engineering services was besides introduced in 1996 and will be carried frontward and broadened. Already a long-run position called Technology Vision for India 2020 has been prepared, which could organize the footing of engineering development programmes. 3.14 Issues of natural resource preservation and agricultural growing can non be efficaciously tackled in the 36 absence of an appropriate technological base. In add-on, engineering is indispensable for increasing the fight of the Indian economic system in international markets. Autochthonal development of engineering is hence of the highest importance and deliberate planned stairss need to be taken to increase technological autonomy of the Nation. 3.15 Rapid proficient advancement is changing basically the accomplishments, cognition, substructure and establishments needed for the efficient production and bringing of goods and services. So wide and far- stretch are current technological developments that many see the outgrowth of another industrial revolution driven by a new technological â€Å" paradigm † . This paradigm involves, non merely new engineerings and accomplishments in the traditional sense, but besides different work methods, direction techniques and organizational dealingss within houses. As new conveyance and communications engineerings shrink international ‘economic infinite ‘ , it besides implies a important reordering of comparative advantage, and trade and investing dealingss, between states. 3.16 In India besides, there is considerable technological activity in a broad spectrum of houses. what is most impressive is the figure of little and average sized endeavors that are puting in new engineering based ventures, and frequently striking out in universe market as exporters. However, the remainder of the industrial sector still needs to put on engineering upgrading. Experience of many developing and industrialized states suggests that a rapid acceleration of industrial engineering development calls for a deliberate ‘strategy ‘ , in the sense that it requires the authorities to organize and steer an basically market- goaded procedure. Free markets suffer from assorted sorts of market failures ‘ , they may non throw up the appropriate sums of substructure, accomplishment, information and institutional support, and mere exposure to market forces, while acquiring rid of inefficient policies, may non do to make the technological dynamism that continued industr ial growing demands. 3.17 Indian engineering policies are undergoing important alterations, and on the whole have improved greatly in recent old ages. They are non, nevertheless, ideal. A coherent engineering scheme In India must turn to a figure of interrelated elements in the inducement government and the relevant factor markets and establishments. The undermentioned attack should steer future policies in engineering: accomplishments: Technology development calls for both general and specific signifiers of human capital, and emerging engineerings are extremely skill intensive in both proficient and managerial footings. While India is endowed at present with big sums of high-ranking human capital, investings in the creative activity of new accomplishments ( as measured by registration degrees in proficient 37 topics at all degrees ) are low. In add-on, house degree investings in developing are extremely variable, and big parts of industry invest really small in preparation. The SME sector in peculiar suffers from really low degrees of accomplishment, while industrial preparation institutes are frequently unresponsive to their demands. Technological attempt: R & A ; D in Indian industry has been lifting, but the overall degree is still low and over three quarters of research attempt originates in the populace sector. This is in contrast to Taiwan and Korea, where most of R & A ; D is undertaken by industrial endeavors. It is of import for the Government to analyze current technological tendencies in industry in order to explicate appropriate policies to promote R & A ; D. Technology entree: Technology upgrading requires that Indian endeavors of all types have information on relevant engineerings in international markets and besides within the state. Many states have well-developed systems of computerised online engineering information and airing services, frequently backed up with consultancy and fiscal aid for little and average endeavors to enable them to cognize approximately, trial, and implement new engineerings. The handiness of similar installations are weak in India. Note needs to be taken of the emerging tendencies of limitations on entree to engineering through rigorous rational belongings limitations and on â€Å" double usage † engineerings by certain. groups of industrially advanced states. Particular attempts have to be made to guarantee that such limitations do non suppress advancement in high engineering sectors. Technology establishments: India has a big substructure of engineering support establishments, some of which are undergoing reform to do them more relevant to industrial demands. A figure of universities, particularly the IITs, are interacting progressively with industry on technological affairs, while others are outside this circle. There is a demand to beef up ‘Technology Foresight Programmes ‘ to analyze the deductions of emerging engineerings, analyse domestic strengths and failings and aim future engineerings for local development. Other substructure: Technology development by and large requires the puting up of bunchs of industries that can portion information and accomplishments, as in scientific discipline Parkss ‘ or dedicated industrial estates. some such installations exist in India, but their efficaciousness and working demand to be strengthened. 3.18 Finally, an of import constituent of sustainability of the development procedure is in the accomplishment of a high 38 degree. of integrating between the assorted parts of the state so that the benefits of rapid and sustained growing can be spread widely in order to better both regional balance and the economic chances available to the people. The most of import constituents for accomplishing this terminal are transport linkages and communications. The Ninth program will put great accent on supplying the needed connectivity to all parts of the state. 3.19 Although the Government can increase the connectivity of small towns through public plants and employment coevals programmes by affecting the local organic structures, major route web development would still necessitate a considerable sum of resources. Fresh enterprises need to be taken in this way by coordinate action between the assorted grades of Government and with aid from private bureaus and fiscal establishments. Advanced methods of uniting Public and private resources would necessitate to be worked out in order to do such investings productive and feasible. 3.20 Similarly, in so far as communications are concerned, it is improbable that the resources available with the Government would be sufficient to spread out the telecommunications web to the extent desired. The enterprises that have been taken to supplement the public sector attempts need to be carried frontward, and a proper enabling environment demands to be created. This is indispensable since communications are as indispensable an infrastructural input as they are critical for integrating. 3.21 In visible radiation of the macro-economic restraints being faced by the economic system and the analysis of the executable growing waies, it appears that a sustained acceleration in the growing rate of the economic system will hold to be associated with a determined attempt at raising public nest eggs, chiefly by cut downing the gross shortage and bettering the public presentation of public sector endeavors. This is necessary in order to supply both the necessary degree of investible resources and forestall the re- outgrowth of balance of payments unsustainability. Stairss would besides hold to be taken to guarantee that private nest eggs addition in a sustained mode. 3.22 In regard of public nest eggs, while the rate of growing of grosss must be increased, the rate of growing of gross outgo excessively should be slowed down. The Government will call up fiscal resources by using all beginnings which have remained untapped so far. At the same clip, the construction and mode of deployment of public outgo should be altered significantly in order to guarantee the maximal positive impact on poorness relief and the societal sectors. 39 3.23 It is to be noted that the ratio of entire grosss of the Centre and the States to GDP had reached 23.8 per cent in 1989-90, but declined thenceforth and came down to 22.6 per cent in 1990-91 and stayed at the degree in 1993-94. However, there is a major difference between the behavior of grosss between the Centre and the States. The gross grosss of the Centre declined steadily from 14.4 per cent in 1989-90 to 12.2 per cent in 1993-94, whereas in the instance of the States, it increased steadily from 9.4 per cent in 1989-90 to 10.4 per cent in 1993-94. The ratio of entire revenue enhancement grosss of the authorities sector to GDP had reached 16.9 per cent in 1989-90 but declined thenceforth and reached 15.3 per cent in 1993-94 ( it is estimated to hold reached around 16 per cent of GDP in 1995-96 ) . In position of this, it would be sensible to take at raising the revenue enhancement ratio by approximately 1.5 to 2.0 per centum points of GDP so that it reaches the degree of 17.5 per cent in the post-Plan period. This would merely intend somewhat transcending the ratio that had already been reached in 1989-90. Acharya, S. and R.L. Jogi. 2004. aa‚ ¬Aâ€Å"Farm Input Subsidies in Indian Agriculture.aa‚ ¬A? Institute of Development Studies Working Paper 140, Jaipur India. Government of India, Planning Commission. 2005. Midterm Appraisal of 10th Five Year Plan ( 2002-2007 ) . hypertext transfer protocol: //planningcommission.nic.in/midterm/midtermapp.html Jalan, B. 2004. The Future of India: Politicss, Economics, and Governance. Penguin Books: New Delhi

Progress Report Speech or Presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Progress Report - Speech or Presentation Example The patent survey was conducted both at national and global level, and findings came to the conclusion that the modeled design had no similarity to any of the patented models. The dimensional variations provided the huge and significant basis of the difference as indicated on the attached fig below. The drawing specification mainly considered the essentials as drawn in the provided sketch. So many factors contributed to the design of the bus including the precise number of passenger that is it has the capability to carry. Body dimension of approximately 142†by 90† provides spacious room for accommodation of close to 22 passengers. The bus design aims at providing services to school going kids. Future design changes or continuous improvement in design will enhance its application in other different activities. Such activities include moving of tourists and many other functions. Body design may expect some changes in future to recombine aesthetics aimed at attracting buyers. The body size is typically justified considering the massive engine capacity prospected for the bus design. Changes in design would eliminate some concepts in future, for instance, extreme space wastage as exposed in the

Annotated Bibliography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Annotated Bibliography - Essay Example According to this model, the role of the nurse involves the identification of potentials, assets and strengths within the family setting and encouraging the family members to focus on them. The nurses also seek to convert deficits in the family to strengths. Through this model of nursing, families become empowered and can achieve much more in the promoting health. According to this model, health denotes a social phenomenon, and a behavioral code communicated within societal structures such as the family and community at large. This essay will provide an annotation of sources that provide relevant information for use in this research. Allen, F., & Warner, M. (2002). A developmental model of health and nursing. Journal Of Family Nursing, 8(2), 96-135. Summary This article provides one of the critical essays written by Allen Moyra, the developer of the developmental model of health and nursing. She sought to develop a model that would describe a relevant organization with the potential of bringing the family unit and health professionals into working to promote health. The McGill model, as it is also referred, is one of the models adopted by nurses in improving the efficiency of their services. This article highlights that families have potentials, assets and strengths that can play a critical in improving health. ... Allen highlighted that through this model of nursing, families become empowered, and can achieve much more in the promoting health. Critique and Annotation This article discusses the developmental model of health and nursing, a concept that Allen introduced into the nursing field in 1996 in a bid to introduce a re-orientation in the Canadian nursing practice. The author of the article held a PhD in education, masters and bachelor’s degree in nursing explaining her competence in describing the model. Assignment two seeks to define the developmental model of health and nursing. In this context, the article is very relevant because it offers a description of the model as developed by Moyra Allen, a description that targeted nurses in practice. The article defines the objectives of the model in nursing and defines the context into which it applies. In this article, there is an elaborate definition of health as a social phenomenon, which is the definition exhibiting relevance to th e McGill model of nursing. In order to define health in this context, she identified the difference between health and context, and highlighting the urgency of adopting healthy lifestyles. Moreover, the article is of great relevance in this research because it offers the core information that defines the model. The author describes the assumptions underlying the model, and outlines the significance of the family in fostering health. The author outlines the relationship between the nurses ‘role and the family in according health care. In the research, this paper will serve as a foundation in developing the context of the essay. Moreover, this article succeeds in outlining the organization required in practice guided by this article.

Medivac Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Medivac - Essay Example the law is still a question legally battle as consideration is given to the investors who may want to have such information in order to help make informed decision regarding the investment. In this regard, the courts will find it an offence to have crossed the materiality threshold if the information was given to an investor who did not seek such information but based on making a fortune. The law prohibits such moves that are only aimed at making individuals to invest based on envisaged fortune. The case of piper v. Chis-Craft Industries, Inc. comes in handy in the understanding how the article is enforceable in law (Hazen, 2003). The supreme court in there ruling determined that there should be no private remedy in the case of competing tender offeror. The court declined to do direct compensation of any private remedy, and instead highlighted that the opinion was in pursuit of section 14 (e) - Private right of action in the hands of the target company or its shareholders (Hazen, 2003). The Court in arguing the case of piper indicated that the motive of Williams act was to ensure further protection by furnishing the shareholder of the target information so that they could make informed choices and not that of competing tender offerors, which were considered collateral benefits to the tender offer provisions (Hazen, 2003). This shows how the article consideration for enforcement is determined. The underlying factor in this case is the intention of giving the insider information t the prospective shareholders. If the intention is the response to inquiry, then one may be considered not culpable for any violation of the statute, but if it is proved to be for the conspiracy to make a fortune for oneself then it is a violation of the act. The federal security act was enacted following the stock market crash of 1929, which ensued the great depression in the American economy. The period lasted of about a decade and resulted into negative impact on the industrialized

E-Cigarettes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

E-Cigarettes - Essay Example Article number one, â€Å"Use of E- Cigarettes Rises Sharply Among Teenagers, Report says† by Sabrina Tavernise and article number two, â€Å"Teens use e-cigarettes for ‘dripping,’ study says† By Susan Scutti both cover the topic of E-Cigarettes usage. In the articles, the authors both include data, research, opinions, and more. Writers Sabrina Tavernise and Susan Scutti use many strategies to persuade and pass a meaningful message to the readers. Each article covers the facts and data of E-Cigarette usage as well as portraying the message that their simply just isn’t enough data and research collected yet on the topic. Although article number two leans more towards the innocent positive side of the topic, from my understanding both authors weren’t sure if E-Cigarettes had a positive or negative effect on youths and people around the globe. In order to portray their message, each author used Logos. Logos relies on logic and reason. Both author s used Logos by including the old and current data as well as showing visuals and adding quotes and opinions by reliable people in the community.

Hepatitis c Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Hepatitis c - Essay Example It exists in six genotypes, of these genotype I is most prevalent form of HCV. Since the virus exists in different genotypes and sub-genotypes, it becomes very challenging for the development of its vaccines. HCV is not related to other hepatitis viz. hepatitis A or hepatitis B. It is grouped in the family Flaviviridae along with yellow fever virus and dengue virus. As soon as virus gains entry in the liver, it elicits immune response resulting in inflammation; protracted inflammation lays the foundation of scarring which further takes the form of cirrhosis and thus preventing liver to perform its normal functions. Such condition paves the way for liver cancer (Alter, 2000). It is transmitted through blood especially through blood transfusion, use of unsterile injections and rarely through sexual transmission (in cases where an individual is suffering with Sexually Transmitted Disease and has open sores). 7. Sporadic transmission: in this case the source of the infection cannot be found out, it results due to community-acquired infections where virus gets entry in body through cuts or injuries or an abrasion (Alter, 2000). Use of sterile needles, safe hygiene conditions and routine blood examination, taking complete history of the patient, thorough screening of the blood for HCV when blood is donated by a donor or when given to the patient, use of self-capped needles, no sharing of personal belongings like razor, towels, toothbrushes, Acute: it is the initial 6 months when the patient contacts the infection of Hepatitis C. as the disease is asymptomatic no initial signs appear in majority of the population. Only 30-40% of the infected cases develop symptoms like reduced appetite, tiredness, aching abdomen, jaundice, itch, burning sensation and flu. When blood is examined through PCR, HCV can be seen in 1-3 weeks after getting the infection, moreover antibodies against the HCV could

How far does the British state conform to, or depart from, the ideal Essay

How far does the British state conform to, or depart from, the ideal of an enterprise association, as opposed to a civil association - Essay Example The Marxist interpretation of Colonialism will be our point of departure, due to its scientific validity in our estimation. Thereafter, the Marxist stand point losses its relevance for our paper as it tends to adhere to a meta-analytical perspective and tends to be clichà ©d, lacking a predictive quality, whereas the paper requires to focus on British Colonialism and its reverse influence on the state structure of Britain. To fascilitate our argument we have appropriated and borrowed David Easton’s Systems’ Approach to comprehend the complexity of the reverse interaction in focus. Thereafter we will further our argument by referring to the useful categorization of Hanrieder to demonstrate that how colonial interests ultimately shaped the British state at the institutional level. Great Britain was a relatively late entrant on the world stage as a colonial power. The Spanish and Portuguese seaborne empires preceded Britain. These colonial empires were built on the linchpin of maritime power and subsequent colonial acquisitions. The dominance of Iberian Peninsula lasted roughly till late 16th century (Brewer.1989). This was what the Marxist call ‘Mercantile Period’. Britain as a mercantile state par-excellence began to dominate world colonial matrix by the end of 16th Century. One reason for emergence of Britain’s dominance was that the ‘industrial revolution had centered on Britain, thereby necessitating an â€Å"organization of production and accumulation†, designed to fascilitate a merchant capitalist economy, looking for raw material, cheap labour and markets for finished products’ ( Luxemberg.1951). Britain’s colonial expansion was propelled by the emerging needs of a nascent political economy which needed co lonies. Thus at the outset of this epoch, British State geared itself to colonize and acquire territories to safeguard the interests of a mercantile state, thereby as a corollary almost canonizing principle of free trade and

Concept of war and conseqences it leaves behind Essay

Concept of war and conseqences it leaves behind - Essay Example The concept of war was thus initially related, in international law, to the delimitation of the penal jurisdiction of States to prosecute and punish, rather than to the definition of the incriminated acts and the attendant penalties. This latter task was left to municipal law, and more particularly to military codes. Except for a few occasional points of contact, a full-fledged partnership between military and economic science was not established until the First World War. In outstanding works on military strategy like that of Clausewitz, the economic complements to warfare are not even mentioned. To make it applicable to our time, however, his famous statement that war is but a continuation of politics through other methods might very well be rephrased. Today it seems equally reasonable to say that modern warfare is largely a continuation of economic policies through other methods. For thousands of years there was only an indirect connection between the economic system and the method of warfare. The ends of war were frequently economic, as when men fought to win tribute or slaves, and certain consequences of war, such as starvation and devastation, had economic significance as well.

Essay Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Essay - Assignment Example The Cold War was characterized by increased tensions between America and Russia, and military advancements characterized each other’s agenda in dominating world affairs. Therefore, Solnits arguments elicit praise and criticism of this period in almost equal measure, but are apparent America realized its objective after decisive sacrifices. My primal reason for reading this chapter is to comprehend and understand numerous events in society that have shaped human conditions in the world. It was possible by reading Solnit’s work to understand the unique features of Silicon Valley, as she notes â€Å"Finding the landscape of Silicon Valley isn’t as easy as getting the subdivisions and freeway exits and industrial parks.† When Langdon Winner wrote a profile of Silicon Valley a few years ago, he reached for the Winchester Mystery House as its Emblem. It is an obvious one in a region whose other landmarks are scarce (Solnit 52). Consequently, I agree with Solnit on the difficulty of finding the landscape of Silicon Valley. Increased military operations have transformed the valley into an area of underground military bases, tunnels, and activities. The physical landscape of Silicon Valley is deceiving because even though one can see decaying emblems like the Winchester Mystery house, it is apparent many m ore buildings, and facilities characterize the valley’s landscape. Her arguments about Silicon Valley significantly transformed my perception about a landscape, and I discovered that even underground features in the area are part of its landscape. Moreover, the difficulty in finding the landscape of Silicon Valley led to my second reason for reading this text, which was to comprehend and understand Solnit’s comparison of Silicon Valley with a maze. After understanding why the author compares Silicon Valley with a maze, I critically analyzed this comparison to understand this inevitable metaphor clearly and easily. Advances in technology,

Development of intelligence test performance Essay Example for Free

Development of intelligence test performance Essay Intelligence can be defined in several ways, ranging from broader definitions such as the ability to cope with life, to more specific definitions such as skill in problem-solving and reasoning. Intelligence tests are implemented by psychologists in order to assess such skills, and a quantitative measure of this intelligence is usually presented in the form of an IQ (intelligence quotient). IQ scores are the basis of much research into the development of intelligence test performance. One cultural factor which may have an affect on a childs measured intelligence is mother love; attachments may play a part in childrens cognitive development. This hypothesis can be tested by studying children who have been separated from an attachment object (i.e. a parent), and Skeels Dye found evidence to suggest that the formation of an attachment improves intelligence test performance. In their study, 13 of the most mentally retarded infants in an orphanage were moved to an institution for mentally retarded women, where they would form an attachment with a mildly retarded woman. Over the next four years, those who had moved had an average IQ gain of 32 points, compared with an average reduction of 21 IQ points for those who remained in the orphanage; this difference was still evident 27 years later. This study can be commended for its implications: at the time the accepted view was that IQ was constant throughout life, but the study showed that, with the right treatment, IQ can be significantly improved. Another factor in IQ development is quality of education. Schweinhart et al.s Perry Preschool Project provides evidence for this; compared to children given no pre-school education, those who had been given quality pre-school education appeared not only to have improved IQs later in life, but they were also less likely to commit crime and drop out of high school. This finding is duplicated by Operation Headstart, which provided children from disadvantaged homes with pre-school programs. There was an average IQ gain of 10 points in the first year and, although the IQ scores returned to average levels, subsequent progress such as high school graduation was higher in those who had taken part in the project. This indicates that an increased quality of education may lead to an increase in IQ. Another cultural factor that may influence the development of measured intelligence is a childs home environment. Bradley et al. Identified six factors, including parental involvement and the provision of play materials, which were significant in a childs development of intelligence, and called it the HOME inventory. If the HOME score of a child was low, a childs IQ may have declined between 10 and 20 points between the ages 1 and 3, whereas the opposite was true for those with high HOME inventory scores. This theory would be supported by Piaget and Vygotsky, the theories of both of whom suggest that the provision of age-appropriate play materials are likely to improve cognitive development. In addition, Vygotsky emphasises the role of culture in cognitive development, which is very much in line with the HOME inventory study. It may even be that diet is a cultural factor which has an influence on a childs development of intelligence. In a study by Schà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nthaler Bier, children who had been given vitamin-mineral supplements performed better on a non-verbal IQ test than those who had been given a placebo. This supports the idea that diet has an influence on intelligence, but it it not necessarily the case that supplements improve IQ; the researchers suggested that it was a poor diet that diminished IQ, and the improved diet restored the cognitive abilities of the children who previously had a poor diet. The idea that it is environmental cultural factors, rather than race and genetic cultural factors, that have an effect on a childs intelligence test performance is supported by Scarr Weinberg, who found that both white and black children, when adopted by middle-class white families, performed better on IQ tests at age 7 than the average for their respective ethnic groups. They attributed this improvement to growing up in a culture of tests and schools, and exposure to better healthcare and socialisation. However, in a follow-up study ten years later, it was found that the black childrens IQs were not notably higher than the average for their group, indicating that an upbringing in a white, middle-class home had little or no influence on their intelligence. However, this does not necessarily indicate that it is a genetic cause, since skin colour and intelligence are believed to have very different genetic structures. It may be in indirect genetic influence, in that black children raised in a white home have lower self-expectation, or that they socialise with other black children at school (which may have more of an influence than their white, middle-class home). IQ tests have, however, been heavily criticised for lacking reliability, as an IQ result from one test can vary dramatically with an IQ result from another. Additionally, they have been criticised for being culturally biased; there are many different types of thought (e.g. language, problem-solving, pattern recognition, reasoning), and some types of thought are more valued in some cultures than in others. This may extend to sub-cultural differences between people of different socioeconomic status. For example, it has often been found that black American children perform less well on IQ tests than white children, however, Serpell (1979) found that white children performed significantly less well than black children on an IQ test aimed at black Americans. This brings into question the use of IQ tests as a valid method of measuring intelligence.

Definition Of Parental Involvement

Definition Of Parental Involvement 2.0 Introduction Research is made in order to inform people with new knowledge or discovery. Jancowicz (2000:159) knowledge does not exist in a vacuum and you work only has value in relation to other peoples work. Thus for a research to be credible, it should be supported by other works that have spoken about the same topic; therein the importance of the literature review which Hart (1998) defines as: The selection of available documents (both published and unpublished) on the topic, which contain information, ideas, data and evidence written from a particular standpoint to fulfill certain aims or express certain views on the nature of the topic and how it is to be investigated, and the effective evaluation of these documents in relation to the research being proposed. The ability to carry out a literature review is an important skill for any researcher. It will provide the latter with a context in which to place the research with respect to what has already been researched about the topic whereby the researcher will get an up to date account and discussion of the research findings about the particular topic. 2.1 Parental Involvement 2.1.1 Definition of Parental Involvement Parental involvement is believed to be an important strategy in the advancement of the quality of education. Parental involvement as such may be defined in different ways. According to Althoff (2010) parental involvement refers to the amount of participation a parent has when it comes to schooling and her childs life. (Abdullah, Seedee, Alzaidiyeen, Al-Shabatat, Alzeydeen, Al-Awabdeh, 2011) define parental involvement as the activities occurring between a parent and a child or between a parent and teachers at school that may contribute to the childs educational outcomes and development. NCLB (2001) described parental involvement as regular participation of parents, a two-way process, and meaningful communication involving student academic learning and other school activities including: Assisting their childs learning; (b) Being actively involved in their childs education at school; (c) Serving as full partners in their childs education and being included, as appropriate, in decision-making and on advisory committees to assist in the education of their child; and (d) The carrying out of other activities such as those described in section 1118 of the ESEA Section 9101(32). Liontos (1992) mentions recent beliefs about parents and families that schools should consider when involving themselves in the education to their children: 1) All families have strengths, 2) parents can learn new techniques, 3) parents have important perspectives about their children, 4) most parents really care about their children, 5) cultural differences are both valid and valuable, and 6) many family forms exist and are legitimate (pp. 30-31). 2.1.2 Family Involvement Regardless of how they are able to demonstrate their investment, the notion that families play a very important role in creating a school that provides a nurturing and safe environment for their children is becoming widely accepted (Epstein et al., 1997). Families provide the social, cultural, and emotional supports that youth need to function well in school. Schools provide opportunities for childrens positive interactions with significant adults and other adolescents to enhance their home experiences and to support their continued development and related learning (Comer Haynes, 1991). According to Davies (1991) parental involvement shifts from parent focus to family focus, family to community agencies, school to home/neighborhood setting, eager parents to hard-to reach families, teachers/administrators agendas to family priorities, and deficit view of urban families to emphasis on inherent strengths of families. He further explains that even though non-traditional families are much more common nowadays than they were in the 1950s, alternative family structures are effective and should be recognised by the school. The paradigm Changing Definitions of Parental involvement according to Davies(1991) is as follows: from Parent Focus to Family Focus; from school to home or neighbourhood setting; from eager parents to hard to reach families; from teacher/administrator agenda to family priorities; from deficit view of urban families to emphasis on inherent strengths of families. Davies (1991) mentioned that non-traditional family units are getting more common, but the alternative family structures are effective and should be recognised as they do impact in the education and performance of students. 2.1.3 Types of parental involvement Fan and Chen (2001) in their meta-analysis found that researchers commonly conceptualised parental involvement as having multiple dimensions. Research conducted over a number of years have proved that there are numerous types of parenting practices associated with positive school-related academic and social competencies. These are: (a) parental participation in school-related activities, for instance monitoring homework and attending parent-teacher association meetings (Desimone, 1999; Keith et al., 1993; Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch Darling, 1992); (b) parental encouragement of positive school behaviors (Atkinson Forehand, 1979; Barth, 1979; Kelley, 1952; Schumaker, Hovell, Sherman, 1977; Seginer, 1983); and (c) parental expectations for achievement and attainment (Ainley, Foreman, Sheret,1991; Fan Chen, 2001; Scott-Jones, 1995; Seginer). Similarly, Epstein (2001) has distinguished six types of parental involvement namely: parenting; communication; volunteering; home tutoring; involvement in decision-making; and, collaboration with the community. Epsteins model presents family, school and community as overlapping spheres of influence, the congruence of which is of considerable importance for the optimal development of children. 2.2 The effect of parental involvement on childrens achievements It is generally believed that the parents do play an important role in the education of their children and there is now an extensive research literature indicating that parental involvement is advantageous for children of all ages (Cox 2005; Desforges and Abouchaar 2003; Eccles and Harold 1993; Epstein 2001). Research has shown that one of the most promising ways to increase students achievement is to involve their families (Chavkin, 1993; Henderson Berla, 1994). Herbert Walberg (1984) found that family participation in education was twice as predictive of academic learning as family socioeconomic status. Establishing partnerships with families has many benefits for schools and families, but Epstein says, the main reason to create such partnerships is to help all youngsters succeed in school and in later life (1995, p. 701). When parents participate in their childrens schooling, students may experience more academic and social success. Epstein (2001) suggests that parents who are informed and involved in their childrens school can positively impact their childs attitude and performance. Drawing a causal link between parental involvement and student achievement is challenging; much of the research on parent involvement and student performance is therefore correlational (Scott Stein Thorkildsen, 1999). Although the impact of parental involvement is dependent on a number of contextual variables, there are many advantages attributed to parental involvement. Involvement at home, especially parents discussing school activities and helping children plan their programs, has the strongest impact on academic achievement (Sui-Chu Willms, 1996; VanVoorhis, 2003). Researchers have also found that parent-child discussion about school helps improve academic achievement and reduce problematic behavior (Epstein Sheldon, 2002; McNeal, 1999; Sheldon Epstein, 2005). McLaughlin and Shields (1986), for example, reported that parents can contribute to improved student achievement through their involvement in (a) the selection of appropriate reading materials, (b) targeting educational services, and (c) the use of particular pedagogical strategies. Clark (1983) found a correlation between achievement in reading and mathematics and the number of books at home. Parent involvement is absolutely essential to student achievement in school and in life say (Campbell Glasgow, 2010). The overwhelming studies and research indicate that there are indeed positive academic outcomes stemming from parental involvement with benefits beginning in the early childhood throughout adolescence and beyond (Henderson Mapp, 2002; Patrikakou, Weisberg, Redding, Walberg, 2005). Buchmann and Dalton (2002) suggest a possible linkage between differences in institutional contexts of educational system and variation in the effect of parental involvement on childrens educational outcomes while examining variation across 12 countries in the effect of mothers and peers attitudes toward academic performance on educational aspiration among middle-school (lower secondary school) students. The comparisons across 12 countries indicate significant variation in the influence of parental attitude on childrens educational aspiration across countries with different structural features of educational system. 2.3 Factors affecting Students Academic Achievements The students performance or academic achievement plays an important role in producing the good quality school leavers who will become good manpower for any country. There are actually numerous factors that affect the performance and achievement of students. Parents influence their childrens academic achievement (Spera, 2005). High family socioeconomic status, positive parenting practices, positive aspects of parents personality, and high marital quality are associated with school success (Harold, Aitken, Shelton, 2007; Heaven Newbury, 2004; Robertson Reynolds, 2010). Children whose parents who actively promote learning in the home more positively engage in relationships outside the home and in learning (Marchant, Paulson, Rothlisberg, 2001), perhaps because these parents help children approach learning environments more positively. The premise that home environment risks, such as negative parenting (Clark, Dogan, Akbar, 2003), a chaotic household (Brown Low, 2008), parents low educational attainment or income level (Davis-Kean, 2005), and single-parent family structure (Zill, 1996), are correlates of poor academic functioning is also well supported. According to a report on Monitoring Learning Achievement (1999) the Determinants of childs performance were identified to be as follows: Socio-economic status of the childs family had a very strong impact on achievement at school. (b) Parental education level and parents opinion about education were decisive factors affecting performance of the children at school. (c) The child who had access to learning through technology and through materials at home was more likely to do better at school. (d) Pupils who had a positive attitude to school and teachers as well as those who used English to communicate performed better on the tests. (e) Children who had more experienced teachers at school and who were more frequently assessed became better learners. 2.3.1 Student Demographics and Students Achievement Students from ethnic minority backgrounds and low income families are more at risk for poor school outcomes and are becoming an increasing share of the student population. Many studies have linked the educational disadvantage of minority students to a combination of out-of-school factors, many of which center on family characteristics, such as poverty and parents education. Linn (2005) says that prior achievement or other relevant characteristics of the student body may help to explain current levels of achievement while (Carlson, 2002; Ponisciak Bryk, 2005) point out that when large scale assessments are used as the sole measure of accountability, the characteristics of the schools clientele are confounded with change that is directly attributable to the effectiveness of the school producing biased estimates of school effects. Children coming from middle-class family may have a head start given their higher social position and income may lead to better quality housing, more availability of books and study facilities at home such as their own room, internet access facility as well as the ability to afford private tuition. According to the University of Mauritius study on private tuition (1989), children from better off families take more tuition than students from poor families and they tend to perform better. A better measure of a schools effect on student achievement should account for the nature of students in the schools as well as the characteristics of the schools themselves. For example the correlation according to Sirin (2005) between socio-economic status and achievement tends to be approximately 0.30 at the student level. When aggregated to the school level, the correlation between socio-economic and academic achievement is approximately 0.60 (Sirin, 2005), though that correlation has been estimated to be even higher (0.73) in an earlier meta-analysis (White, 1982). 2.3.2 School Leadership and Students Achievement Studies have revealed that strong leaders are critical to successful learning environments (Briggs Wohlstetter, 2003; Hallinger, Bickman, Davis, 1996; Haycock, Jerald, Huang, 2001; Jesse, Davis, Pokorny, 2004; McGee, 2004; Muijs, Harris, Chapman, Stoll, Russ, 2004; Murphy, 2004; Scribner Scribner, 2001; Snipes, 2004; Yau, 2002). There are different characteristics of strong leaders that have been mentioned in the literature: Leaders have a clear vision for their schools that is continuously communicated to school staff and parents (Cole-Henderson, 2000; EdSource, 2006; Jesse et al., 2004); they have high expectations for all students (Cole-Henderson, 2000; EdSource, 2006; McGee, 2004; Scribner et al., 2001); and they are able to translate their vision and expectations into concrete goals for teachers by aligning curriculum with state standards and standardized tests (EdSource, 2006; Education Trust, 2003). 2.3.3 School Systems and Students Achievement In many countries, including Mauritius to some extent, school systems are tracked where students are assigned to different school types based on their prior performance. These tracks range from purely academic tracks to vocational tracks and prepare students for different educational and labor market destinations (Marks, Cresswell, Ainley, 2006; Reyes, 2010). In general most secondary school systems maintain a distinction between academic and vocational education. The specifics may be different from place to place, but in most countries academic education prepares students for college or for a university whereas vocational education prepares them for immediate entry into the labor market (Shavit, Blossfeld 1993). Schools may be involved in the socio-economic inequalities in education in a number of ways. Wealthy families can afford a superior education for their children by sending them to fee-paying private schools. In countries with tracked school systems, the allocation of stude nts to the more academic school tracks may be biased towards students from higher socioeconomic backgrounds. 2.3.5 Parental Involvement and Students Achievement Studies on the influence of parenting on school outcomes have mainly focused on specific parental practices such as involvement in their childs education, mostly in relation to academic achievement and rarely in relation to school dropout (McNeal, 1999; Rumherger, 1995). Studies conducted among specific grades and subject areas support the contention that parental involvement can influence students academic achievement regardless of the students age or subject. For example, Stegelin (2003), Wirtz Schumacher (2003), and Hertz-Lazarowitz Horovitz (2002) focused on early childhood education and literacy, noting a link between families who engage in literacy activities at home and their childrens success with reading and writing. Henderson and Berla (1994) say that the most accurate predictor of a students achievement in school is not income or social status but the extent to which that students family is able to create a home environment that encourages learning; express high but not unrealistic expectations for their childrens achievement and future careers and become involved in their childrens education at school and in the community. There exists an extensive research literature indicating that Parental Involvement is advantageous for children. This includes home-based Parental involvement such as listening to children read and supervision of homework as well as school-based Parental Involvement such as attending parent education workshops and parent-teacher meetings. The effectiveness of both home-based and school-based Parental Involvement in facilitating academic achievement has been reported by several reviews and meta-analyses of the literature (Fan and Chen 2001; Henderson and Mapp 2002; Jeynes 2005, 2007; Pomerantz, Moorman, and Litwack 2007). Mariaye (2008) has found that higher levels of education of parents are often related to better provision of financial resources, thus leading to achievement of children. 2.4 Barriers to parental involvement Though there is much importance attached to parental involvement it is still being ignored in many schools. Lazar and Slostad (1999) believe that parents are willing to get involved in the education of their children, but the negative perceptions of parents persist because teacher education programs do not educate teachers to work with parents. Foster and Loven (1992) also shared that the major explanation for this, according to researchers, is the fact that very little attention is given to preparing teachers to work with parents and other adults (Lazar, 1999, p. 207). According to Lazar and Slostad, (1999) the way parents viewed their roles was shaped by the circumstances and norms of particular cultures and their beliefs about their own effectiveness as teachers or tutors. Epstein (1991) found out that teachers had doubts whether they could motivate parents to become more involved even though they thought that parental involvement would improve students achievement. Teachers lack the attitudes, knowledge, skills, and strategies needed to collaborate with families leading to a weak school-family partnership (De Acosta, 1996; Epstein Dauber, 1991; Foster Loven, 1992; Greenwood Hickman, 1991; Midkiff Lawler-Prince, 1992; Williams,1992). Major barriers to parental involvement in schools include the school environment, school culture, time constraint, changing demographics and employment patterns, and the lack of teacher preparation in involving parents in their childrens schooling (New Skills for Schools, 1997; National PTA, 1997). 2.5 Overcoming barriers to parental involvement Strategies for overcoming barriers to parental involvement in schools include overcoming time and resource constraints, providing information and training to parents and school staff, restructuring schools to support family involvement, bridging school-family differences, getting external supports for partnerships, meeting families basic needs, providing flexible times and places for parental involvement, and helping staff communication with parents (The U.S. Department of Education, 2004; Family Involvement in Childrens Education October 1997). The various barriers to Parental involvement can be categorised by adapting Epsteins (2001) framework of overlapping spheres of influence focused on the three areas of family, school and community. 2.5.1 Parents beliefs about Parental Involvement Parents beliefs about various issues can act as barriers to effective parental involvement. Firstly, the way that parents view their role in the education of their children is crucial. Parents who believe that their role is only to get children to school, which then takes over responsibility for their education, will not be willing to be actively involved in either school-based or home-based parental involvement. Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1997) reported that this attitude is more prevalent in some communities and national cultures than others, but that there is considerable variation within these. For example, Clark (1983), in his research on high achieving students from low-income black families, found that what distinguished the parents of these students from others at the school was that they believed that they should be involved in their childrens education, by both supporting their learning at home and interacting constructively with schools. Clark found that parents of high a chieving students had a greater belief than the other parents that they could effectively help their children to do better at school. 2.5.2 Parents perceptions of invitations for involvement One other potential barrier to parental involvement is parents perceptions of the level of explicit and implicit invitations for involvement. According to Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1997) when parents think that Parental Involvement is not valued by teachers or schools they are less likely to get involved. Thus, parents perceptions of invitations from schools are considered crucial in developing effective parental involvement. Epstein (2001) has found that parents are most effectively involved when teachers actively encourage them to get involved. Eccles and Harold (1993) believe that teachers with positive, facilitating attitudes toward involving parents encourage more parents to become involved and increase the effectiveness of parental involvement. When parents perceive that teachers are not open to involve them, there tends to be a major barrier to parental involvement. Similarly, when schools are welcoming to parents and make it clear that they value parental involvement, the s chools develop more effective parental involvement than schools that do not appear inviting to parents. Secondary schools are often seen by parents as large bureaucratic organisations which are not welcoming to parents, which is considered to be one of the reasons why there is a tendency for higher levels of parental involvement in primary than secondary schools (Eccles and Harold 1993). 2.5.3 Parents Level of Education Parents level of education will influence their views on whether they have sufficient skills and knowledge to engage in different aspects of parental involvement (Green et al. 2007). For example, parents who have not completed secondary school themselves may be diffident about helping their children with homework once the latter get to secondary school. Also, parents who do not have a university degree may feel in some ways inferior to teachers who they know are better qualified than them and therefore be reluctant to work closely with the teachers. In general, children of parents with higher levels of education perform better, on average, on assessments of student achievement. 2.5.4 Parent current life status Family circumstances can be major barriers to parental involvement. For example, single parents and those with young families or large families may find it difficult to get involved in education of their children because of their responsibilities. Parents work situations can also be a factor. When parents are unemployed money could be an issue as they may not be able to afford a car or to pay babysitters in order to get to school meetings. For parents with jobs, whether both parents work and the kind of jobs they have may be issues. When both parents work they will have less time to devote for both home-based and school-based parental involvement. Similarly while some jobs allow little flexibility for taking time off for school-based parental involvement, other jobs may leave parents too tired at the end of the day to help children with homework (Catsambis 2001; Green et al. 2007). 2.5.5 Class, ethnicity and gender There exist also barriers regarding to class, ethnicity and gender of parents that account for the difference between rhetoric and reality in parental involvement. Reay (1998) suggests that it is those parents who possess cultural capital which matches that generally valued by schools. In contrast, working-class parents, although they possess their own undervalued cultural capital, are aware of the difference between the cultural capital they possess and that of teachers. Reay (1998) concludes that, for working-class families, home-school relationships are about separateness, whereas for middle-class families they are about interconnectedness, and this difference shapes their respective attitudes towards parental involvement. The barriers related to ethnicity and culture also play an important role. According to a report by Koki and Lee (1998) some of the issues involved in parental involvement for parents in New Zealand who have come from the Pacific Islands. They make the point that it is impossible to understand these issues outside of the context of the history of Pacific education and cultural tradition, but the reality is that parental involvement programmes typically pay scant regard to these issues. 2.5.6 Learning difficulties and disabilities The performance of at school can be both a barrier or facilitating factor for parental involvement. According to Eccles and Harold (1993) when children are struggling with their school work, due to learning difficulties or disabilities, then parents are generally more inclined to be active in parental involvement activities. Many authorities on special needs education consider that involving parents is an essential aspect of effective education for children with disabilities or learning difficulties (Hornby 1995; Seligman 2000). The involvement of parents is required for the process of implementing individual education programmes and this facilitates parental involvement for many parents whose children have learning difficulties or disabilities. But this is not always the case as there are many possible areas for disagreement between schools and parents of children with learning difficulties or disabilities, which can then act as barriers to effective parental involvement. For instan ce, when parents consider that their children can achieve more academically or when teachers want more support from parents in backing up at home what children are working on at school (Seligman 2000). 2.6 Strategies to involve parents To achieve more parental involvement, the school or teachers can help to adjust to parents work schedules, interests, and special abilities to involve them in their childs education 2.6.1 Parenting Parents can be involved in their childs schooling in many ways. One way teachers can get these parents involved is by providing them information about parenting practices. Parents with children with behavior problems are interested in learning about specialised reinforcement and discipline techniques that can be applied in their home. Research has shown that students who are disruptive in schools are also disruptive at home (Walker et al., 1995). Teachers can be useful by providing suggestions on how to teach specific skills at home. Parents who learn new parenting skills and teach their child at home are making positive contributions to their childs education. 2.6.2 Communication Encouraging parents to communicate with the school about important information about their child is another way parents can be involved. Darch, Craig, Miao, Yu, Shippen, and Peggy(2004) recommend that teachers ask parents to discuss their childs behaviour at home, his or her attitudes about school and learning, and whether there are home problems impacting the childs behavior at school. It is helpful if teachers ask parents about their expectations about their childs performance. 2.6.3 Volunteering Darch et al.,(2004) also suggest that one role that some parents can play is to provide instructional or management support in the classroom. For example, parents can be tutors for their own child or other students in the classroom. Also, parents can serve by grading papers, participating in field trips, and reading to groups of students. The advantages of including parents in these activities are many. Parents visibility in the classroom can be helpful in managing children. Also, if parents can provide instructional support, the improved learning performances of students will have a positive impact on their classroom behavior. 2.6.4 Instruction According to Darch et al, (2004) parents can also be involved in their childs school program by providing instructional and management support in their homes. Teachers may ask parents to allocate time for their childs homework, provide instructional support for academic assignments, and carry out home-based reinforcement programs. For parents to effectively take this role, they must be willing to participate and must have skills to implement home-based programs. However, as Hoover-Demsey and Sandler (1997) point out, many parents do not see the importance of taking an active role in their childs education. Thus, teachers must provide parents with clear guidelines on how they can be helpful at home and, if necessary, information on how to implement instructional and management strategies at home. An advantage of these activities is that the child is provided extra instruction at home that leads to more successful learning and motivation in the classroom. 2.6.5 School-Wide Involvement Teachers can suggest to parents that they be involved in school-wide activities. (Darch et al., 2004). The goal is to link parents to activities beyond their childs classroom: parents can be involved in PTA meetings, school-wide parent advisory councils, volunteer to work in the school office, and participate on a school-wide discipline committee. The advantages of linking parents into school wide activities are obvious. The presence of parents throughout the school is related to higher levels of student achievement and decreases school-wide disruptive behaviors. Parents involved with school-wide activities become more supportive of teachers and school policy. 2.7 How do schools involve parents? According to Hanke (2006) lack of parental involvement is due to lack of helpful information to parents. Emails, phone, letters, newsletters and personal contacts can be made by schools to reach out to parents. If schools communicate with parents regularly and consistently using the various means, the gap between school and parental involvement will be reduced. Based on the recent report on the Commonwealth conference on education (2012) the technology is available for ICT to be the foundation for change in education provisioning: from the classroom to the ministerial committee room; from the way teachers relate to their students, to the increasing of parental involvement in schools. Students expectations and achievement will increase if involvement are identified by Epstein and associate (1997): parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision making, and collaborating with the community. Reenay and Vivian (2007) have explained that even though the invention of new technologies has made it easier for schools to reach out to parents (through emails, cell phones and internet websites), the use of traditional methods in communication has been found to be an effective way for schools to communicate with parents, but this has been limited in use b